©1995 Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Telecommunication
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*By Jake Batsell * Amid the post-apartheid euphoria that followed South Africa's first multi-racial elections in 1994, CBS anchor Dan Rather looked to Zimbabwe for a story on what lessons the newly democratized country could learn from its neighbor to the north. Among others, Rather interviewed Trevor Ncube, executive editor of the Financial Gazette, a weekly independent newspaper and one of the few media voices in Zimbabwe free from government control. One year later, sitting on the witness stand in a courtroom in Harare, Zimbabwe's capital, Ncube was answering even more questions - questions many felt were meant to intimidate journalists nationwide. He and two colleagues were being tried on criminal defamation charges in perhaps the most famous press freedom battle in Zimbabwe history. Ncube's newspaper had published a story reporting that Zimbabwe President Robert Mugabe had married his former secretary in a private, secret ceremony. Ncube, deputy editor Simba Makunike and publisher Elias Rusike were arrested at their homes on a Saturday morning and jailed for two days while police interrogated them about the story. "It's an indication of just how intolerant this government is to public scrutiny, to criticism and to transferring fair comment," Ncube said in an interview before the trial. In August, the journalists were found guilty, though they were spared of jail time and instead ordered to pay a hefty fine. Still, many observers - both within Zimbabwe and abroad - viewed the Financial Gazette trial as a reflection of how stringent many African governments have become toward the independent press. Press freedom is among the most volatile topics in African politics today. Across the continent, instances of government intervention in media matters abound. In mid-November, eight journalists were detained while investigating a military buildup on the Kenya-Uganda border. Sudan's government banned two private newspapers in May on unspecified grounds and asked a third to appoint a new editor. And Zambian President Frederick Chiluba opened a press freedom conference last summer by discouraging African journalists from adopting a confrontational role toward their governments. "This freedom creates anarchy," Chiluba was quoted as saying by Reuter news service. "Regrettably, media institutions in Africa have graduated from operating in an environment of fear and uncertainty to a confrontational stance against those in authority in democratic environments." Chiluba's sentiment is echoed by many African heads of state, who repeatedly have accused the media of dividing the people at a time when national unity is crucial to their countries' development. But some believe African leaders' efforts to stifle the media are hindering their nations from realizing democracy. Ruling party 'sending message' The Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), led by Mugabe, has been revered by most Zimbabweans since it orchestrated the liberation struggle against Ian Smith's white- minority Rhodesian Front in the 1970s. Zimbabwe, formerly known as Rhodesia, gained black majority rule in 1980 and has been governed by ZANU-PF ever since. While the party still retains a strong electoral showing - ZANU-PF captured 148 of a possible 150 seats in April's parliamentary elections - scandal and severe repercussions of economic restructuring have weakened the government's credibility in the eyes of many. Outside of a few monthly magazines, the Financial Gazette is the only independent media voice in Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Information indirectly controls the nation's major newspapers, and the government operates the national broadcasting station. Based in Harare - a cosmopolitan city of more than one million in an otherwise largely rural country - the Gazette has gained a reputation for frazzling the government on issues outside of business. A regular column called "Media Circus with Muckraker" routinely ridicules the government and state-controlled media, and the newspaper has pursued a number of investigative stories. After being arrested in connection with the article on Mugabe's alleged marriage, Ncube said he and his colleagues were taken in and individually grilled by police. Ncube said he repeatedly was asked to disclose the source of the article. When he refused, he was told he should be prepared to go to jail. Ncube said he and Makunike were later placed with 12 other common-law criminals in a dirty, stinking cell. Sitting in his Harare office three weeks later, Ncube discussed his arrest calmly and with reserved contempt as old manual typewriters clanged in the background. "I think they are sending a message that this is another typical African government, another typical African political party used to dictatorship, authoritarian and heavy-handed in its approach to issues of human rights and democracy," Ncube said. "The whole picture coming out is very negative. It doesn't serve ZANU-PF very well at all." Ncube said he, Makunike and Rusike were arrested "to plant fear in our minds whenever we have to deal with issues relating to the state, the party, the government and certain sacred cows within the government, to terrify us into silence, terrify us into submission ... so that they (ZANU-PF) can go ahead with their corrupt ways of running this country." Officials: No flippant reaction ZANU-PF officials, meanwhile, said the episode was not a knee-jerk reaction from Mugabe. The government maintained that the newsmen were arrested because of the story's contention that a cabinet minister witnessed Mugabe's alleged wedding and that a High Court judge illegally presided over the ceremony. "The problem I see here is not the president or his marriage or non-marriage," said Anne Knuth, deputy director for communication at the Ministry of Information. "The issue at hand is that the attorney general's office was implicated ... if (the judge and cabinet minister) felt they were mistreated by the media, they had the right to take issue, and they did." Zimbabwe has several laws under which journalists can be prosecuted, many of which were passed under colonial rule and held intact by ZANU- PF after independence. Unlike in the United States, there is no distinction drawn between reporting on the lives of public and private figures under Zimbabwe law. "As long as you keep those laws on the books, there's still a danger," Melissa Ford, spokeswoman for the U.S. Information Service, said in her Harare office. "As we saw with the (Financial Gazette) case, if you get these folks angry, they can make life difficult for you." Though Ford said the United States issued no official statement regarding the arrests, Amos Midzi, Zimbabwe's ambassador to Washington, was summoned to the U.S. Office for Southern African Affairs, where Deputy Director Dan Mozena reportedly expressed the government's disapproval. State intervention in the African media is hardly restricted to Zimbabwe. In its latest annual survey of political rights and civil liberties, the New York-based Freedom House reports that only seven of the 50 African states are considered "free." Of those seven, only two - the island nations of Mauritius and Sao Taome & Principe - have an optimal rating with respect to civil liberties, which include an independent media. A heavy-handed stance The October edition of the London-based journal Index on Censorship reveals numerous government reprisals against the African media. The editor of an independent newspaper in the Central African Republic was arrested for attacking the "dignity and honor" of the president. A Cameroonian editor was sentenced to a two-year prison term for defaming the chief of police. In Kenya, the minister of information announced plans to form a commission to investigate journalistic ethics, media licensing and the registration of newspapers. Experts on Africa say the heavy-handed stance taken by many governments against the media can be attributed to the frail, still-developing political systems that have taken shape since the mid-1960s, when England and France left behind their former colonies. "These countries are fragile democracies," Chris Ogbondah, a native Nigerian who has taught journalism at the University of Northern Iowa for nine years, said in a telephone interview. "They have been independent politically for only 30 years ... right now, (state officials) look at those entities as fragile polities that do not need adverse press." Zimbabwean official Knuth said that while she believes there is a suitable climate for press freedom in Zimbabwe, many journalists across the continent have targeted government overzealously. "We value peace here," Knuth said. "We value conciliation, and the facilitation of the well-being of Zimbabwe ... we can't support a media that wants to destroy that. "Do we all want to become political watchers? That's what is happening in the African media. They are becoming so keen on attacking the government. It's just politics." Ogbondah, who once edited a government newspaper in Nigeria, said many African governments view the primary function of the media to be aiding in the social development of the nation, such as fighting against illiteracy or educating the population on health issues. He added: "Whenever the press goes outside this domain, outside the confines of this kind of activity, it tends to get criticized that, 'Hey, you are not doing what you are supposed to do. You are supposed to assist government.'" But Ozias Tungwarara, executive director of ZimRights, a Harare-based human rights organization, said the implicit role of the media in nation-building is to inform objectively - not to consistently praise or assist government. "The requirement of any free society is that the press should have a positive role to play in relation to the development of the community," Tungwarara said. "This role can only be fulfilled if the press is allowed enough space to execute their expected function." Media that irk African officials with regularity almost certainly will face some sort of repercussions. Bob Press, who returned recently to the United States after covering East Africa for The Christian Science Monitor for eight years, said African heads of state tend to react sharply to dissent. "They see it as personal," said Press, now an adjunct professor at Stetson College in Deland, Fla. "There is not a distinction between criticism that is personal or that is against government programs. (A president or prime minister) sees it as a personal affront, and sometimes lashes out against the press." A legacy of self-censorship While the structural and legislative mechanisms for overt censorship certainly exist in Africa, a much more common limitation to press freedom across the continent is that of self- censorship. Most editors and reporters know better than to pursue stories that paint their governments in a negative light. "The journalist censors himself," said Kindness Paradza, president of the Zimbabwe Union of Journalists. "Because if he writes that story and the editor throws it away, he says, 'Why should I write a serious story again?'" Ogbondah agreed that self-censorship is widespread within government newspapers. "You don't need to be told what not to write," he said. "You know that when you write it, you're going to lose your job right away, or you're going to be demoted as editor, or you're going to be transferred from an editorial position ... to somewhere you will be seen but not heard anymore." Press said he witnessed self-censorship firsthand in Ethiopia in 1991, when a wire service reporter came out of a press conference saying the story was "too hot" to touch. This self-censoring atmosphere evidently has had an effect on the political environment in Zimbabwe. ZimRights found in a study that in the 37- day run-up to the 1995 parliamentary elections, 60 of more than 100 newspaper articles on the elections dealt solely with ZANU-PF, the ruling party. The same study found that sniveling terms such as "complained," "criticized" or "worried" were commonly used in paraphrasing the words of opposition or independent candidates, while stronger verbs such as "maintained," "cited" or "thundered" were used when referring to ruling party candidates. Once the votes were tallied, ZANU-PF had captured a whopping 148 of a possible 150 parliamentary seats. Africa Information Afrique, an independent regional news and features service based in Harare, reported a conspicuous example of self-censorship, alleging in an article that The Chronicle in Bulawayo censored parts of an advertisement submitted by the opposition Forum party just prior to the April elections. The advertisement, in the form of an open letter, was harshly critical of ZANU-PF. When asked about the advertisement four months after the elections, Chronicle editor Steve Mpofu said he could not specifically remember the Forum ad, but said "it is possible that it was libelous." Mpofu said the only reasons he would reject an article or advertisement would be if it were unbalanced or obviously libelous. Government controls airwaves Self-censorship extends to the electronic media as well. Unlike the state-controlled newspapers - which at least compete with a few weekly and monthly newspapers and magazines - the government-operated Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation's two television stations and four radio stations enjoy a total monopoly over the airwaves in Zimbabwe. If the ZBC decides not to cover an event, most of Zimbabwe will not hear about it, since 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas where newspapers and television sets are scarce and radio is usually the sole medium for news. Chris Somo, controller of news and current affairs at ZBC, was candid and frank in discussing the self-censorship that occurs at the broadcasting station. "Obviously, we work for the government," Somo said. "Most stories try to portray the government in a positive light, just as would be the case with any private corporation. We deliberately avoid stories that embarrass the government." Somo said he does not feel professionally handcuffed by the government, because "it's a situation I went into knowing fully well there would be certain limitations. I knew what my responsibilities were and what I could and couldn't do. You have to toe the line. "It's a situation I fully understand and am fully cognizant of. I don't have any self-pity for myself. If it's a state-run broadcasting company, there are rules, and if you don't obey the rules, you leave. Obviously, you've got a choice." The result is national news coverage that usually revolves around the itineraries of the president and top cabinet members. A typical ZBC newscast begins with a favorable paraphrase of a government minister's announcement and then switches to extended sound bites from his speech. Investigative journalism a risk Ilan Elkaim, a Zimbabwe businessman who once covered southern Africa for Newsweek magazine and hosted a local radio show for ZBC, said he is well aware of the limitations faced by Zimbabwean journalists. "You can be free with the press up to a point," he said. "You probe a little too much, you're going to get your knuckles wrapped. Because you're up against this huge, omnipotent political force." Pursuing less-than-flattering journalism can be risky, as shown in the Financial Gazette case. With the possible exception of the national soccer team, no topic in Zimbabwe commanded more discussion and debate in July than did the Financial Gazette trial. For two months after the newsmen's arrest, the Gazette steadfastly stood behind its story, despite the denials of the implicated officials. "We have not seen anything of material importance to change our minds," Ncube said in mid-June, nearly a month after his arrest. But a shocker came in early July: a front-page apology to the officials implicated in the story, its publication coinciding with the first day of the trial. The newspaper said it accepted the truth of the officials' denials and added, "Investigations subsequently have shown that the story given to us by the source was untrue, and was probably given in order to embarrass this newspaper." The following weeks resembled a soap opera. Opening the defense's case, Ncube revealed that Makunike, the story's author, had said his source was Zimbabwe intelligence chief Elleck Mashingaidze, to whom Makunike said he was distantly related. Subsequent testimony detailed a chaotic chain of events during which the editors said they published the story because they were promised evidence of the ceremony, but then were denied proof once the story hit the headlines. On the witness stand, Makunike testified that when repeated efforts to obtain the promised proof were fruitless, he began to suspect something was awry. "It then dawned on me that we had been taken for a ride," said Makunike, who spoke softly and fidgeted constantly during his testimony. Mashingaidze was summoned to testify on the trial's final day. In a packed courtroom with a charged atmosphere, the intelligence chief was asked whether he knew Makunike, was related to him and had given him the story, as the deputy editor had testified. "Madam, I am not related to Mr. Makunike by any way other than we are both members of the human species," Mashingaidze said. "I did not know him until this morning when I came here ... we have never associated in any way." Observers of the trial were baffled as to who - if anyone - to believe. Was Mashingaidze lying in order to cover up a covert but sophisticated government plot to discredit the Gazette? Or was it Makunike who was untruthful, his defense seriously weakened since he produced no evidence proving his proclaimed relationship with Mashingaidze? Some suggested that both were lying, which would render the scenario even more inexplicable. After they were found guilty, the newsmen were fined a combined equivalent of about $1,400 and also were frowned upon by many fellow journalists for having revealed their source. Regardless of the trial's twists, however, those who spoke out against the newsmen's detentions are still convinced that the government's reaction was dangerous and designed to intimidate journalists. "It still remains to the public-at-large that this action was simply taken because information about the 'royal family' had been infringed upon," Tungwarara said. "The intentional signal was to say, 'Journalists in the future, please take note.' That cloud still remains." What for the future? The episode caused Zimbabwe journalists to question the motivation behind the arrests and left them wondering what is to come next. Ron Golden, a Harare journalist who writes for Africa Information Afrique, said the Financial Gazette arrests were the action of a government whose power is slipping. "What is worrying is how desperate they will become - to what degree of coercion are they willing to go to to silence the press?" Golden said. "It's not whether they're going to become intolerant, it's how intolerant they're going to become." Though ultimately contending that the Financial Gazette had been set up, Ncube originally dismissed the notion that the story was planted by the government. But two months before the verdict, in what perhaps could be considered an ironic moment of foreshadowing, he considered that possibility. "Even if indeed the intention was to cause embarrassment, I would say, then, that the people with the egg on their face is the government, not us," Ncube said. "They have actually created heroes out of us, going for us and persecuting us for something as frivolous as this." Press, the former Christian Science Monitor correspondent, said such press freedom battles are part of a "package of problems" faced by African countries as they struggle to fully democratize. "Most of the countries where press freedom is an issue have a one-party dominant state," Press said. "That's the problem - the guys on the outside want in. "I think you have to look toward press freedom as a move toward greater freedom overall." Tungwarara added: "You are aware of the power of the media. It does influence policy and opinion in an area. If we shut out those channels, the whole commitment of the government toward social development becomes questionable."
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*By Dawn Wagner* Nine years ago, Danny White was a star. His skills as the Dallas Cowboys' starting quarterback had rocketed his team to the top of the National Football League in all offensive categories. The Cowboys had a record of 6-2, were leading their division and were playing the New York Giants. "It was in the second quarter of the game and Carl Banks hit me as I was drawing back for a pass," White said. "He hit me, knocked me over on my back and pinned my elbow against the turf. "I fell on top of my hand and split the radius bone in my right arm." White, who was sidelined for the rest of the season, was forced to watch his team fall apart game by game. "We went 1-5 the rest of the season and missed the playoffs," he said. "It was a very frustrating thing." White, now coach of the Arena League Arizona Rattlers, was like many NFL players: He got hurt; he got patched up; and he worked to get back on the field as soon as possible. Injuries to athletes, especially those in the NFL, can ruin a team's year, a player's career, the fans' aspirations and the owner's financial pockets. And with every player injured at varying levels throughout the season, it is imperative for a player to return to the lineup quickly. Stuck in the middle is the team physician. Not only expected to do a perfect job in repairing bodies, he is also under constant pressure to do it faster each time. "There is pressure from the players because they really want to get out there," said Dr. Rob Huizenga, former Los Angeles Raiders team doctor and president of the NFL Physician's Society. "They realize they don't have much time to make a name from themselves. "There's pressure from the owners because they've bought teams for hundreds of millions of dollars and they need to get a financial return on that, and the only way to make money in football is to get your best players on the field. "And there's pressure from the fans because they want to win." That makes the doctor's job much more than that of physician, but also of player regulator. "They'll say, 'I'm OK doc' during an injury in a game situation, when you're trying to explain to them they really shouldn't play," Seattle Seahawks team doctor Jim Trombold said. "Often you have to hold them back and actually take their helmet away." The pressure is constant This constant pressure from the injured athlete can be chalked up to a few things, said Denver Broncos wide receiver Ed McCaffrey. The possibility of losing his position or missing out on a big game motivates the player to pressure the doctor. "When someone gets hurt it opens the door for somebody else to have an opportunity," McCaffrey said. "You hope it doesn't happen but football is a competitive sport. "With most teams, if the starter is hurt, he will get his starting position back once he is healthy, but that is not always the case. There is always the chance that someone will step in and replace you permanently." In the Broncos' last-second win over the Washington Redskins earlier this season, McCaffrey suffered a concussion on the final drive of the game. He caught a pass with a minute remaining in the game to put Denver near mid-field but was upended by one player and drilled by another. After sitting out several plays and with the clock down to six seconds, McCaffrey convinced the coaching staff he was well enough to go back into the game. With the Broncos sitting at the Redskins 43- yard line, McCaffrey was assigned to run straight down the field looking for a possible pass from quarterback John Elway in the end zone. McCaffrey started in the right direction but curled back after going 12 yards, looking for a pass from Elway at about the 30-yard line, nowhere near where he was supposed to be. Elway completed a pass to another receiver to win the game and McCaffrey was seen celebrating with his teammates in the end zone. But in the locker room he could not remember what had happened in the final minutes of the game. Injuries such as concussions are common but most players will take the risk, McCaffrey said. "They have to come back before they are fully healed and just hope they don't get re-injured during the time when they are playing and trying to get back to full health," he said. White agreed, adding that some players will risk their long-term health for the chance to play. "I don't think they understand the long-term effects," said White, who played for ASU in the early 1970s. "They want to play, they want to get back on the field and there are guys who will go out and play and risk permanent injury by going back on the field." With that being the mindset of most NFL athletes, Seattle's Trombold said it is hard, if not impossible, to convince a player that he is risking his future by playing too soon after injury. "It's hard sometimes to get their attention," Trombold said. "They're in the prime of their livelihood and they have families. And if there's a chance for them to (play) not many of them will say, 'If I'm going to have a sore knee when I'm 50 playing tennis, I guess I'll stop playing.'" Team doctors describe risks With a rash of ex-NFL players suing their former team doctors, and articles devoted to detailing injuries to athletes, the majority of NFL physicians are taking it upon themselves to make sure players are informed of the extent of their injuries. Trombold said this is done primarily in two ways: through open communication and informed consent forms. By keeping players up to date on their status, the Seahawks try to keep players from trying to enter a game situation prematurely. "We advise that you can play but if you do there is a certain risk," Trombold said. "There's a certain informed consent and they have to make certain decisions. We are very, very heavy on good communication." The practice of keeping players informed is fairly recent. White, who sustained numerous injuries throughout his years with Dallas, said he was sure he was not told about every injury. "They do let you know what is going on," he said. "I think there are certain cases where a doctor may not totally inform a player because he feels the injury is not significant enough to worry the player about it. It may be an injury that's not going to get any worse. "But more and more today doctors are pretty much being forced to disclose everything and it's a real problem." The most common way to make sure the athlete is clear about his injuries is through informed consent forms. After sustaining an injury and then summarily being cleared to play after rehabilitation, a player will usually get a notification in the mail telling him what is wrong and why the rehabilitated injury may pose a problem in the future. One scenario Trombold said is common is when a player is coming back from knee surgery and passes the pre-season physical and is cleared to practice the next day. "He often gets a letter informing him that his joint is at more risk than a good knee," Trombold said. "And that from the wear and tear of normal play, later in life he may have problems. He should understand that might happen if he continues. "But most of them don't even take a deep breath. They obviously are going to continue to play football." Sometimes the risks aren't so clear cut. "Where do you (the player) draw the line between whether the injury is significant enough to stay off the field or play?" White said. "Players are always having to play with pain. It's just the nature of the game. You have to be able to play hurt." McCaffrey said playing with injuries - some serious - is merely a way of life for most NFL players. "You really have to try to block the pain out of your mind," he said. "It's easy to let it be a distraction, but when you let injuries affect the way you approach the game you will usually make mistakes or play poorly." Speedy recoveries expected Recovery has become faster over the years. With state-of-the-art equipment, personal trainers, instant physical therapy and the newest medical advancements speedy recoveries often are expected. "A private patient is going to get physical therapy three times a week for three to five weeks, but we're going to provide physical therapy two to three times a day for three weeks," said Perry Edinger, head trainer at ASU. "And they'll be back on the playing field within two to three weeks and 100 percent after three weeks. "A typical patient is not 100 percent after five weeks." He added that players' bodies are also in much better physical condition than the average non- athlete, which allows them to recover at a much quicker pace. McCaffrey said the physical therapy and top- of-the-line equipment may help heal athletes faster but the drive to be on the field outweighs it all. "A football player must rehabilitate himself much more quickly than the average person because of the profession he is in," McCaffrey said. "He can't afford to wait until he is 100 percent." Pressure for a player to return quickly also comes, in some cases, from the owners and coaches. Huizenga, who in his book, You're Okay, It's Just a Bruise chronicles the constant pressure he was under from Raiders owner Al Davis, said the NFL has two coaching, and medical, personalities. "I think at some levels the NFL is A+ because you have some of the best doctors in the country," Huizenga said. "But on the other hand there are some giant holes like some very powerful owners using their position of hiring any team doctor they like, to hire doctors who will secede to them in critical games and critical times. To put players out sooner than they might otherwise in other situations." ASU's Edinger agreed. "In pro athletics, they are there for one reason. They are there to earn money for their club," he said. "If you have a player who is making $6 million and maybe he can play this week and maybe he can't, which way do you think the input is going to go?" However, that opinion is not shared by everyone. Trombold said that in his 19 years of experience he has never once been pressured by the coaches or owners to put a player back on the field before he is sure they are ready. "I've never gotten any argument from a coach during a game or in any conference," he said. "Disappointment, sure. "They're disappointed and they might ask, 'Are you sure?' but when they get a solid medical opinion I've never seen my opinion or any orthopedist's opinion overridden. "(Coaches) would rather lose several games than have someone shorten his career. So, when it comes down to dollars and cents, they have a tendency to be conservative." White, who moved on to coach the world champion Arizona Rattlers in arena football after finishing his career in the NFL, said his perspective has changed now that he is a coach rather than a player. "It's just a game," he said. "It's silly to risk your future and your long-term physical well-being over a game. "I won't jeopardize a player's future over a game no matter how important that game may seem at the time. It's just not worth it." Even with the extra precautions taken by doctors and the best medicine has to offer, players are occasionally still being allowed on the field before they have fully recovered from an injury. Feeling the effects Whether it is the player pushing to get back in the lineup or the owners trying to get a return on their investment, players are feeling the effects. According to Huizenga, who now treats ex-NFL players for recurrent and degenerative football- related problems, 70 to 80 percent of all professional football players have some sort of disability after leaving the sport. White, who complains of an occasional sore ankle from numerous sprains and has permanent knots in his chest from broken ribs, said he expects to have more problems in the future. "I haven't had anything that has really affected the quality of my life," he said. "Even my wrist, which they told me will develop arthritis, hasn't affected my life. Of course, I knock on wood when I say that. I'm 43 years old and I've got a long way to go. I'm sure there will be times when I feel the effects. "But, was it worth the experience? I would have to say, 'yes.'" That is the attitude of most athletes, McCaffrey said. "The thrill of playing the game is worth the risk of injury that you face," he said. "Now, there are several players whose careers have ended because of being paralyzed playing the game, and for them the thrill of playing the game might not be worth the price they have to pay. "But most players would say it is worth it."Related Story-
Colleges, pros always test limits of medicine
Perry Edinger clearly remembers when defensive end Malchi Crawford fractured his patella on a play against Stanford University. The ASU director of sports medicine recalls running out on the field and remembers discovering the severity of the injury. But what really stuck in his mind was Crawford's mother. "The first thing that went through my head was that Malchi was a local kid whose mother comes to practice and is very involved with the program," Edinger said. "I wondered where she was and was she going to be around so that we could communicate to her what was wrong with her son." This concern over the college program's ultimate responsibility to the players and their parents is the big divide between professional football and college. According to Edinger, it's all a matter of priorities. "When we go out and sign an individual to play at ASU, he or she is signed as a student athlete," Edinger said. "We have a responsibility to them and to their parents." There are similarities between college programs and the pros, too. Like professional athletes, college football players have only a limited amount of time to make a name for themselves. Dr. Jim Trombold, internist for the Seattle Seahawks, said the pressures for a profitable investment return are easily comparable between NFL teams and college athletic programs. "I think the pressures and the desirability of a good player to play are similar because the college coach is measured on wins and losses much like a team in the NFL," he said. "Of course a college has scholarships and they want their program to be successful so they have their own type of investing." Dr. Rob Huizenga, former Raiders team doctor and currently involved in treating ex-NFL players, said the pressure may not be as great in an average program as on a national-championship-caliber team. "I don't know whether or not a team doctor can stand up to the top Pac-10 coaches," Huizenga said. "There have been man1y sanctions against top colleges. "Hopefully, the pressures are less in a college situation. There were colleges who had problems with anabolic steroids, where coaches and team doctors were obviously looking the other way." In both college and the NFL, the race to get players back on the field is a full-time job. Developing new and improved ways to treat game injuries have left doctors occasionally testing unknown waters. "You are testing the limits of medicine," Edinger said. "How quickly can you put someone back on the field? How well does your body respond to certain injuries? We're constantly trying to approach the limits without stepping over them. "Yes, we run the fine line but we run it on the conservative side a whole lot more than they will at the next level."
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*By Angela Mull * The Arizona Cardinals could not stop Minnesota wide receiver Cris Carter from snagging 12 receptions for 157 yards and two touchdowns in the Vikings' 30-24 overtime victory in mid-November. But Carter stopped for the Cardinals. As players headed toward the locker room after the game in ASU's Sun Devil Stadium, Carter joined Arizona cornerback Aeneas Williams at the 40-yard-line, where about 15 players from both teams knelt. They prayed. Similar scenes are becoming familiar in professional sports. Christian athletes stop after practices and games to pray to Jesus Christ. Wide receivers like Carter lift the ball toward heaven after making touchdowns. Players like Williams, 27, sprinkle references to God and Christ throughout post-game comments. While some are uncomfortable with such public displays of faith, many professional Christian athletes such as San Antonio Spurs center David Robinson, Green Bay Packers defensive end Reggie White and California Angels outfielder Tim Salmon are incorporating their relationships with Jesus Christ into their public personas. In addition to using their positions as platforms to spread their beliefs, many Christian athletes also feel an extra responsibility to be role models. Through their words and lifestyles, they attempt to influence children, teammates and non-Christians. Williams said it is important for Christian athletes to speak out about their faith. "God has placed me here in Phoenix for a reason, and football is only a small part," he said, seated in front of his locker after a practice. "The Lord has blessed me to have success, but the one thing I know is to be a representative of Jesus Christ. He's not here visibly, so the way people see God is through the people who claim to be His children." California Angels pitcher Shawn Boskie agreed athletes should be up front about their beliefs. "We definitely have a responsibility to give credit where credit's due, and God is the giver of the talent we have," said Boskie, 28, as he relaxed in a Tempe restaurant booth. However, not every athlete believes Christian players should be so vocal. Cardinals kicker Greg Davis, 30, does not join Williams and other teammates in post-game or post- practice prayers on the field. "I don't believe in doing it for show," said Davis, his face flushed and red from practice. "It's very personal to me. It isn't a relationship between me and 80,000 people. They come to watch me play, not pray." Dick Balderson, Colorado Rockies farm director, said he sometimes disagreed with the time and place Christian ballplayers expounded on their beliefs when he was general manager of the Seattle Mariners in the 1980s. "I had some problems with some of the players," he said in a telephone interview. "When they failed and didn't perform well, they said that was the will of God, and I had a hard time agreeing with that." Their numbers are increasing The number of Christian athletes has increased over the last 30 years, said Kevin Harlan, senior vice president of programs with Fellowship of Christian Athletes, a national organization out of Kansas City that encourages a relationship with Christ among coaches, athletes and players. Total membership in FCA is about 300,000. However, not all members are athletes, and Harlan said the group does not tally the number of its professional athletes. The point in their lives when athletes become Christians varies. Brian Harper, a 36-year-old retired catcher who spent six years with the Minnesota Twins, was intrigued by Christianity after high school in 1977 when a roommate related the Bible verse John 3:16, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life." In a telephone interview, Harper said, "I had a good friend who died in high school, and that had always made me wonder what happens to you when you die. The fact that God gave us a free gift of eternal life for believing in his Son was enough (for me) to say that's what I want." Boskie said he accepted Christ as his personal savior the summer after college in 1988. During his years in the minor-league organization of the Chicago Cubs, Boskie said he realized he did not have a direction in life. "I was meandering toward this goal of getting to the major leagues and trying to conquer as many women as I could along the way," he said. "I'm not proud to say it, but that's kind of what my motivation in life was at the time." It was baseball chapel that prompted Boskie to realize what he was missing. "I started hearing some challenging messages about salvation and having a relationship with Jesus," he said. "When I evaluated that, I didn't think that I had that." Compared to 20 or 30 years ago, today's Christian athletes appear to be discussing their faith more, said Dave Branon, managing editor of Michigan-based Christian sports magazine Sports Spectrum. "When I was a kid, there were only a handful of athletes who talked about the fact that they were Christians, so they really stood out," he said in a telephone interview. "Now, it seems like every week there's another athlete who gives his testimony on national TV after winning the game. They're maybe more bold about it." Harper said one advantage to Christian athletes speaking publicly is they can reach people pastors cannot-those who do not attend church. "Athletes should share their faith because I believe that part of the reason that God has given them an ability to play in professional sports is as a platform to help other people understand that God really does love them," he said. Cardinals rookie wide receiver Frank Sanders, 22, said it is good for athletes to be vocal about their faith because people want to see why they are always happy and where their peace comes from. "People realize it's not the money that the person has," Sanders said enthusiastically as he took a break between a team practice and a workout. "It's something deeper than money. It's something nothing on earth can take away from you." Sanders said he became a Christian in July at a Bible study led by teammate Williams. "I felt like every dream I had, I had accomplished, and it seemed I still wasn't happy," he said of his life before accepting Christ. "When I had the chance to look into the Bible and see what God considers a good and divine person, I wasn't living it." Rick Roberts, pastor to families at Crossroads Community Church in Tempe, agreed. "When the lights go out, when the career ends, you've got to have something else," he said. "And it's not money. It's a relationship with Christ." However, Roberts said the Christian community seems too eager to place Christian athletes on pedestals. "When we do that, we remove their humanity," he said. "We give them more credibility, attention, praise and worship than is really due any human being. When we put them up that high, they're human, and we humans fail, and sooner or later they're going to fail." Everyone makes mistakes Roberts said it should not surprise people when Christians make mistakes when faced with temptations like money, alcohol, drugs and sex. "They have temptations and weaknesses and are susceptible to sin just as you and I are," he said. Phoenix Suns forward A.C. Green, who accepted Christ after high school in 1981, is adamant about one temptation-sex before marriage. Green, who founded Athletes for Abstinence and has practiced abstinence during his 10 years in the National Basketball Association, said the only form of safe sex is no sex. In addition to abstinence protecting people from sexually transmitted diseases, he said it is emotionally healthy. "Condoms were never meant to protect you from a broken heart or a shattered dream, and they won't," Green said from his 12th floor A.C. Green Programs for Youth office in Phoenix. Green said professional athletes face intense sexual temptations because of their celebrity status. "As far as how much of a temptation is out there, it's more than the average times 50," he said, laughing and smiling. "You're in a profession that fascinates a lot of people." Green said he continues to practice abstinence by relying on God's grace and strength, being committed to his convictions and keeping accountable to other people. Harper said his faith and focus helped him resist opportunities to party and drink. "I look at some ballplayers and I say, 'Wow, how do they do it without God?'" he said. "I see ballplayers that struggle with alcohol and drinking and I can understand that because there's so much pressure in professional sports. Without God, who knows what I would have done." The hardest thing about being a Christian athlete, Boskie said, is keeping money in its proper perspective. "Having money's not a sin, but cherishing it to where you're controlled by it, that's a problem," he said. "I recognize that I'm a steward of the money. It's really not my money, it's God's." Children imitate athletes Williams, who became a Christian in 1989, said Christians should not try to predict what temptations will confront them. "Stumbling blocks come in all kinds of forms," he said. "A lot of times when you start thinking where it's going to come get you, it's going to come get you at the back door." When stumbling blocks knock Christian athletes down, the results can be devastating to children because they expect the athletes to behave in a certain way, said John Wilson, a school psychologist with Tempe School District No. 3. "If they have this person on a pedestal that can do no wrong, that can be fairly detrimental," he said. "We live in a chaotic world already, and kids want to hang onto something that is consistent and real." Wilson said children may imitate the wrong things in terms of moral behavior when their role models throw temper tantrums or abuse their power. "Kids can get the wrong idea about what really is socially acceptable in whatever environment you're in," he said. Roberts said although children may be disappointed, they probably have shorter memories than adults. "Adults would probably be more critical and hold a grudge longer, whereas my 8-year-old, as disappointed as he might be initially, probably would be more apt to forgive and forget and move on in a matter of days," he said, laughing. Branon of Sports Spectrum said the children who are most disappointed by a Christian athlete's mistakes are those raised in a Christian home. "They don't know whether to blame Christianity or blame the athlete sometimes because they're in that questioning mode time in their lives," he said. "It's really confusing for them." Non-Christians are also affected when Christian athletes do things inconsistent with their professed beliefs, Williams said. "A lot of times, (non-Christians) won't read the Bible but they'll read your life," he said. "And sometimes that may cause them to stumble." Mistakes are allowed Harlan said non-Christians may identify the one athlete who made a mistake with all Christians and label them all hypocrites. He said this could cause non-Christians to wonder about the authenticity of Christianity. Although non-Christians can be negatively affected by a Christian athlete's mistakes, Boskie said each person's salvation is not dependent on a Christian athlete's lifestyle. "We would be arrogant to think that people are going to fall down on their knees all over the place worshiping Jesus because they saw us walk by living a clean life," he said. "We're not going to live a clean life. We're going to make mistakes." One mistake Boskie said he would like to take back is when he cursed on TV early in his career. "It was crystal clear what I had said," he said. "That's something that I would love to not have happened, but I don't really look back that way because God's going to deal with whatever happens in my life and I'm trying to please Him from today forward." Williams said non-Christians are not the only ones affected when Christian athletes make mistakes-Christian athletes are, too. "The Bible says when one part of your body suffers, then your whole body suffers to some degree," he said. "That's the same way with Christians. When one falls, everybody hurts. What we have to do as Christians is restore that brother." Harper said people react two ways to Christian athletes who make mistakes. Some people can be judgmental and non-compassionate; others are more compassionate and understanding, he said. He said he saw both reactions in Minnesota when he was involved in a fight on the field in 1989. Harper said he wishes he could have taken back the loss of temper that preceded his part in the bench-clearing brawl. However, he said he felt he had no choice but to participate. "The situation itself was one to which I felt like I kind of was forced into a situation where I couldn't really do anything but fight," he said. Green said that when it comes to fighting in games, Christian athletes are viewed separately from non-Christians. "If I hit someone in a game or one of my teammates who is not a Christian hits someone in a game, it's going to be viewed in a different way," he said. Green said his tough defense sometimes surprises other players because of their perceptions of who Jesus Christ is. "If a person has a perception that Jesus is just a nice, lovable guy who passes out fish and bread and blesses everyone and doesn't ever get mad or upset, then they're going to expect people who claim to be Christians to live like that," he said. However, Green said Christ did get angry, like when he overturned the tables of money changers in his temple in Jerusalem. "The point of the matter is that you have to play hard and aggressive, because the Bible tells you whatever you put your hand to, do it with all your heart, soul, mind and strength," he said. In spite of potential inconsistencies in what Christian athletes say they believe and what they actually do, Roberts said they can make good role models, especially for young children. "Our young people are looking for heroes, and whether an athlete wants to admit that he or she is a role model or not, the fact is they are," he said. Roberts said he is steering his sons toward Christian role models like Green. A poster of the Suns forward hangs in their bedroom. "I don't have a poster of (Phoenix Suns star Charles) Barkley in their bedroom because, quite frankly, I don't want them to model themselves after his lifestyle, language and some of the attitudes he portrays," Roberts said. Wilson said Christian athletes can be good role models because of their commitment to a consistent lifestyle. "That's not to say that all Christian athletes are going to be the best role models," he said. "There are some who lose their tempers at times and display examples of poor sportsmanship." Harper said Christians have an extra responsibility to be role models. "Not only are you a role model for kids, but your standards are a lot higher because you're supposed to be living according to how God wants you to live," he said. "God wants the Christian athlete to be a witness and an example of how a Christian should be." But Christian athletes are not the only athletes who are role models, Williams said. "Whether you're a Christian or not, you're a role model," he said. "I think that comes with the territory because of how society has totally put the professional athlete in the spotlight." Although Harper said athletes are role models, he said he understands what Barkley said in his commercials declaring that parents, not athletes, should be role models. "I totally agree with that," he said. "The ultimate role model for children should be their parents, but that's in a perfect situation, in a perfect society. All parents haven't taken the responsibility to be good role models." Roberts said one thing people should realize about using athletes as role models is that the public sees only what the media presents. "We really don't know what's in another person's heart," he said. "All we can do is go by what we can see." Working with teammates In addition to providing role models to children by how they conduct themselves, Christian athletes also should work toward bringing their teammates to a relationship with Christ, Williams said. "The Bible says go out into all nations and make disciples of men," he said. Although athletes can discuss their beliefs with teammates, Harper said lifestyle evangelism is more effective. "Living out what you believe is more valuable on a team than just talking," he said. "There will be times when you need to talk and say something when people ask you questions, but the most important thing is to live out your faith. That gets more respect among teammates." Boskie said he tries to maintain a balance between verbal and lifestyle evangelism so he does not disrupt the team. "When I signed a contract to play for the California Angels, I got a job that is dependent on the 24 other guys on the team," he said. "So we're all one team and I can't be divisive in that, (and) trying to promote my own agenda. The Lord will bring those guys to him when he wants." Harper said he had some problems with teammates because of his religious beliefs. "Some ballplayers felt like anything that you said about the Bible or about Christ was forcing yourself on them," he said. "As soon as you brought up God it would be (offensive) to them." If a player was offended, Harper said he would not talk to that person about God to avoid angering him. "But sometimes when you say the truth to people, they're not going to want to hear it," he said. "Sometimes you offend people just because they're feeling guilty," he said, laughing. Williams said he knows he will not always agree with teammates. "We won't always agree because everyone didn't agree with Jesus," he said. Green said there are certain activities like going to nightclubs that he will not participate in with teammates. But, he said Christian athletes should not cut themselves off from their secular teammates. "That would just be a form of judging them and condemning them, and, more importantly, they need to be around you," he said. Branon agreed that Christian athletes should not set themselves apart in an arrogant way from their non-Christian counterparts. "They should still hang out with them and befriend them," he said. "But people should be able to see a difference in the way they live and talk." Boskie said the reaction he receives from teammates is the same any Christian could receive. "I feel like a homeless person that found the soup line and I'm just telling the other people, 'Hey, it's over here' and if they don't believe it and want to take exception to it, there's nothing I can really do about that," he said. "I think overall people appreciate knowing that my work ethic and effort is going to be there because of the integrity they have seen over time. I think it's a reflection on Christ. That's the way we all should be."
(Click here for full photo and caption.)
*By Jeff Owens *
In the mid-1970s, Kenneth Edgett decided to go
to Mars.
He discussed the trip with his aunt and uncle,
who tried their best to support their 15-year-old
nephew's planned mission to the red planet.
Now, 15 years and a Ph.D. in geology later,
Edgett laughed about his youthful ambition. "My
aunt and uncle just kind of smiled and said, 'OK Ken,
you go ahead and go,'" he said from his office in the
Moeur Building at ASU's Mars Global Surveyor Space
Flight Facility.
In a way, Edgett really is going to Mars. He is
one of the many scientists, engineers and educators
in Arizona who are actively involved in the research
and exploration that he and his colleagues hope will
one day culminate in a manned mission to the red
planet.
As a geologist, Edgett will examine data from
the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, which is
scheduled to be launched by NASA in November
1996, and from the Mars Pathfinder craft, which is
scheduled to be launched in December 1996.
As an educator, Edgett directs the Arizona Mars
K-12 Education Program, which teaches children
about Mars, planetary science and upcoming Mars
missions. The program allows students and teachers
to experience part of America's space program.
Edgett, a post-doctoral research associate in the
geology department, said he remembers how thrilled
he was when NASA's Viking spacecraft landed on
Mars in 1976.
"When those pictures came back, they looked
like windows you could just walk right out onto Mars
through," he said.
When Edgett and his assistant Jim Rice took a
group of Pathfinder scientists to Washington in
September to explore terrain similar to Mars, they
also invited 13 teachers from Washington and Idaho
to come along.
"Engineers and scientists never get outside,"
Edgett said. "It turned out to be a very valuable
experience for everybody."
Rice, a doctoral student in geography at ASU,
said he wants kids and adults to know that Mars
researchers are not "a bunch of scientists in white
coats in ivory towers playing with a bunch of
gizmos."
Mars comes to Arizona
Edgett has worked to bring Mars into Arizona
classrooms since 1992.
"Now that the kids are part of it they're excited
about it," he said.
Rice agreed that it was important to educate
children about Mars. He said kids get excited about
Mars in the same way he was excited about the
Apollo program when he was a child.
"Neil Armstrong was my hero growing up," Rice
said. "I tell kids, 'You're going to see people walk on
Mars if you're not doing it yourselves.'"
Edgett and Rice said they were disappointed
that a generation of children is growing up who won't
get to see astronauts land on another world.
"As a kid, I got to see men walk on the moon,"
Rice said. "All kids get to see now is the shuttle. It
doesn't actually go anywhere, it just goes up and
comes back down."
Astrogeologist Jeff Kargel of the U.S. Geological
Survey in Flagstaff said the space shuttle program is
great, but it lacks romance and excitement. "The
shuttles don't go from point A to point B," he said.
"They go from point A back to point A. So they're
reusableÐbig deal. That's no fun."
Manned missions to Mars are "going to happen,
and the sooner the better," Edgett said. He added that
NASA administrator Dan Goldin is pushing for such a
mission in 22 years from now, in 2018.
Rice said that "the first person to walk on Mars
is alive right now."
"So are all the people who will get him or her
there," Edgett added.
Edgett and Rice agreed with Goldin's notion that
a manned Mars program is not a distant prospect.
The technology is here
"Given the right political circumstances and the
social will to go, we could put a crew on Mars before
2010," Edgett said.
"There's plenty of work to do, but the
technology is here. It's been here for quite a while-Ð
NASA had a program and the resources to put a
person on Mars in the early 1980s. Everybody was
assuming that since we landed on the moon by 1970,
we'd land someone on Mars by 1980, but (then
President Richard) Nixon destroyed the space
program.
"But it's only going to happen when the
American people will it to, and that sort of climate
doesn't exist yet."
Edgett and Rice said they believe that a
manned mission to Mars will provide America with a
unifying element similar to that of the Apollo
missions.
"We need that as a society," Edgett said. "It's
sad and embarrassing that the closest thing to a
unifying element these days is millions of people
watching O.J. going down the freeway. We need
something to be proud of as a nation."
Mars is the perfect goal, Rice said. "We want a
frontier. Countries and people need goals."
Mars has been a tantalizing and often elusive
goal for centuries. Edgett said it was Mars that lured
the three most important men in the history of space
exploration. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the Russian
"Father of Astronautics" in the late 1800s; Robert
Goddard, the American who pioneered rocket science
in the 1920s and 30s; and Wernher von Braun, the
German who designed the V-2 rocket for the Nazis
and later joined the U.S. space program, all became
involved in space because of their fascination with
Mars, Edgett said.
"The story goes that, as a child, Goddard would
climb up in a tree to get a closer look at Mars," Edgett
said. "Tsiolkovsky always wrote 'to Mars' on all his
scientific papers, personal correspondence, on
everything," he added.
Percival Lowell, a rich American amateur
astronomer, moved to Flagstaff from Boston in 1894
to build an observatory to study the dark lines that
crisscross the martian surface. He thought they were
canals built by intelligent martians. Today, Lowell
Observatory and the U.S.G.S. in Flagstaff continue to
play an important role in the exploration of Mars.
Mariner 4 flew by Mars in 1965 and sent back
pictures of a cratered, moon-like planet. In 1971,
Mariner 9 gave a complete picture of a planet with
volcanoes and canyons that dwarfed similar features
on Earth. In 1976, two unmanned Viking spacecraft
landed on Mars to take pictures and conduct
biological and geological tests.
The last mission, Mars Observer, was launched
by NASA in 1992. Aboard the Mars Observer were
instruments controlled from ASU and UofA. The
craft was lost on Aug. 21, 1993, as it approached
Mars, however. NASA said it was most likely a
ruptured fuel line that sent the craft speeding off
into an elliptical orbit around the sun.
Edgett said that the day the Mars Observer was
lost "was very sad because we knew what had gone
into it, we knew that all around the country there
were people putting in 80-hour weeks, and all of a
sudden, David Letterman was making fun of it. It
was like losing a person. We were all sad, scared and
angry."
Astrogeologist Kargel remembered that great
disappointment, too. "Everybody here was so excited
that we finally had gotten back to Mars. It was just
crushing to lose the vehicle."
Missions planned this century
Edgett said he is confident and cautious about
the success of the next two missions. "The best
possible people are on the projects and are double
and triple checking everything," he added. "Look at
Viking-Ðthere were billions of ways it could've failed,
but it didn't."
"All the same," he said, grinning, "we're not
counting any chickens."
The Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft is
scheduled to enter martian orbit in September 1997.
It will systematically map the planet and analyze
information at least through January 2000. The craft
will orbit the planet for one martian year-Ð687 Earth
days. The Mars Pathfinder mission is scheduled to
land on Mars in July 1997. That mission will test
new engineering technologies, including a small, six-
wheeled rover, and conduct surface and atmospheric
experiments for one month.
On board the Global Surveyor will be an
instrument called the Thermal Emission
Spectrometer, which will be controlled from the
Moeur Building at ASU. The TES will detect infrared
light on the surface of Mars that will enable a team
of scientists in Tempe to determine what kind of
minerals exist on Mars, take readings on the
temperature and pressure of the martian atmosphere
and examine the polar icecaps and martian clouds.
ASU geology professor Philip Christensen, the
principal investigator for the TES team, said the data
from the device will provide valuable information
about environmental and climatic change on Mars
and Earth. By studying martian geography and
environments, Christensen said, scientists will "learn
more about life," and why it exists on Earth and
apparently doesn't exist on Mars. One of the goals of
researchers looking at martian data is to find out
"what made the Earth so unique among the planets,"
he added.
A unique planet
Mars itself is a unique planet. The fourth
planet is 141 million miles from the sun, and is half
the size of the Earth, with a diameter of 4,200 miles.
Dry, dusty and cold, with an average surface
temperature of minus 67 degrees Fahrenheit, the
permanently frozen martian landscape is sometimes
ravaged by dust storms.
The heavily cratered planet is dotted with
immense volcanoes. The largest, Olympus Mons, is
the largest volcano in the solar system. At 15 miles
high and 400 miles wide, Olympus Mons would tower
over Mount Everest and cover the entire state of
Arizona. The martian equator is scarred by Valles
Marineris, a canyon almost three miles deep in places
and as long as the continental United States.
The thin martian atmosphere is 95 percent
carbon dioxideÐwhat humans exhaleÐand the small
amount of oxygen on the planet is locked up in the
soil. That oxygen combined with iron in the soil to
give martian rocks a coating of iron oxide-Ðrust.
Mars is red because it has rusted away.
In other ways, Mars isn't so different. Martian
days are only 24 minutes longer than Earth days, and
since it is tilted only slightly more on its axis, Mars
has Earth-like seasons.
"It's so similar to the Earth," Christensen said.
"It has an atmosphere, clouds, wind, weather, frost,
sand dunes and icecaps." At one time, he added, "it
had rivers."
Researchers said it is those similarities that
make Mars the next frontier for human exploration.
Kenneth Tanaka of the U.S.G.S. in Flagstaff, who
studies the geologic history of Mars, said, "Enigmatic
features draw us to Mars. From my perspective, Mars
has the greatest opportunities for exploration outside
of Earth."
Albert McEwen, another scientist at the
Flagstaff facility, said, "It's a fascinating place.
Martian features are very diverse and well
preserved." He said that the absence of oceans,
continental drift and other natural processes that
destroy and re-create planetary material on Earth
meant that martian geologic features have existed for
billions of years virtually undisturbed.
"Unlike Earth, there are rocks just lying around
on the surface of Mars that are billions of years old,"
he said.
McEwen has studied Mars for the last 10 years
and is responsible for most of the Mars imaging done
in the United States.
ASU geologist Ronald Greeley said, "We see a lot
of similarities that make Mars the most hospitable
planet in terms of life. Just because we haven't
found life there doesn't mean it doesn't exist."
Measuring martian winds
Greeley and his staff have developed wind
socks for the Pathfinder craft to measure the speed,
direction and characteristics of martian winds. He is
also working on a camera system for a 1998 mission.
Greeley, who began his career at NASA looking
for lunar landing sites for the Apollo program, said
that a manned mission to Mars is "just a matter of
time."
Christensen agreed, and added that there are
many reasons for humans to go to Mars.
"Research is not some esoteric thing," he said.
"A manned Mars program will stimulate the
economy, new technology and the next generations of
bright young kids."
Another good reason to send humans to the red
planet is the basic human need to explore,
Christensen said.
"Imagine standing on a planet, looking at a
place where humans have never gone," he said. "The
human psyche requires exploration. If you don't,
you stagnate."
Christensen said that perhaps the best reason
to go is the simplest one.
"We should go because it's cool," he added.
McEwen said he doesn't think a manned
mission is inevitable, but that he still hopes such a
trip will take place and recapture some of the past
excitement of the Apollo days.
"It would be great to do something like that
again. It would be great to regain some of that
glory," he said.
Edgett and Rice said that the type of political
climate needed to send people to Mars won't exist
until world economies improve and progress is made
on American social problems. Both men said they
are annoyed by the public tendency to think that the
United States can do only one of two things-Ðfeed the
hungry or send a person to Mars.
Kargel agreed: "I didn't like it then and I don't
like it now when people say there are too many
starving people. Going to Mars does not mean
ignoring the poor."
"We can do both," Edgett said. "In fact, the two
issues should be tied together. For example, let's say
we have NASA and the government sponsor a food
drive for the hungry, and tell the kids that the cans
they bring in will be melted down and used in the
hull of the shipÐthat sort of thing."
Rice added: "The technology and engineering is
definitely here. The money isn't floating out in
space, it's here on Earth.
"What we need is to get back the NASA of the
60s."
Rice said that less than one-tenth of a cent of a
U.S. tax dollar goes to the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration now. He added that every
dollar spent on the Apollo program returned $10 to
the U.S. economy in jobs, new technology and
manufacturing.
The Apollo program cost about $26 billion in
the 1960s, which would be about $70 billion today.
"Today, Congress allows $14 billion for NASA,"
Edgett said.
"If NASA was funded today like it was then, we
could go to Saturn."
Edgett recalled President George Bush's 1989
pledge to put an American on Mars. "NASA got back
to him with a price of $400 billion over 30 years. He
was horrified," Edgett said.
The NASA plan called for 10 heavy-lift
launches to carry parts to a space station, where they
would be assembled into a gigantic craft that could
carry all the supplies and fuel needed to get there
and back.
Since then, Edgett said, NASA has changed its
approach to one that would enable a manned mission
for around $25 billion, mostly because of the ideas of
Robert Zubrin, an engineer with the Martin Marietta
Astronautics Group in Denver whose once-
controversial ideas are now generally accepted by
many in the space program.
Zubrin suggested that NASA simply do what it
has been best at all alongÐ"stick around four people
in a tuna can about 27 feet in diameter by 16 feet
tall, and blast them off as soon as Mars is close to the
Earth."
Unlike the Earth, Mars' orbit is elliptical, and so
there is only about a one-month launch window
every 26 months when the planet is close enough to
be reached from Earth in about six months.
Zubrin said there was no need for 10 launches,
large crews or huge, sleek spacecraft.
"It wouldn't be Star-Trek," Edgett said. "It
would be an uncomfortable, clunky, clumsy-looking
spacecraft. It's naive for Americans to think that
they can and should be able to do everything
comfortably and with little danger. Conestoga
wagons weren't comfortable. The first people to
cross the Atlantic certainly weren't comfortableÐit
was a dangerous trip that many didn't survive."
The trick to Zubrin's approach is that months
before sending the human crew, NASA would send
an unmanned supply ship containing six tons of
hydrogen. A pump would start sucking in the
martian atmosphere of carbon dioxide and mixing it
with the hydrogen to produce methane and water.
Methane and the liquid oxygen in water are rocket
fuels.
Zubrin said his "live-off-the-land" approach
means that when the human crew arrives, the return
ship is waiting for them on the surface.
"All gassed up and ready to go," he said.
"No one ever explored Earth without living off
the land. When Lewis and Clark were sent west by
President Thomas Jefferson to explore America, did
they take everything they needed with them? NoÐ
they never would have been able to go if they did.
They lived off the land."
Zubrin said not having to haul all that extra
fuel around would save $350 billion.
He added that while he doesn't think a human
presence on Mars is inevitable, Mars is the next great
frontier that awaits human exploration.
"I consider it extremely important that we go,"
Zubrin said.
Edgett said that while there is still much work
to do, a mission like Zubrin's is "certainly possible in
our lifetime."
A manned mission is to the red planet is "one
thing that would make our future great," he said.
"We'll be modern-day Columbuses."
Four in-depth articles written by ASU journalism students are featured in today's edition of The Bulldog, which is published periodically by the Cronkite School of Journalism and Telecommunication and ASU's Student Publications. The Bulldog is an outlet for journalism students who always are looking for places to publish. The articles will range from feature stories to hard-hitting investigative articles. After all, we are The Bulldog. Today's newspaper was produced electronically by journalism students. Special thanks go to designer Laura Anderson, photographer Jim Poulin, and Vicki Carroll, who created The Electronic Bulldog.