Numbers and Needs :

Ethnic and Linguistic Minorities in the United States

Volume 9, Number 3, May 1999                http://www.asu.edu.educ/cber
Dorthy Waggoner, Ph.D., Editor


MORE NATIVE AMERICANS RECEIVE UNIVERSITY DEGREE

Institutions of higher education awarded 13,366 degrees to American Indians and Alaska Natives in 1993-94. This was an 88.7% increase over the number awarded in 1976-77. Nearly half the 1993-94 degrees (46%) were bachelor's degrees and 36% were associate degrees. Thirteen percent were master's degrees and the remainder doctorates or first professional degrees.

This information is from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System for 1993-94 and the Higher Education General Information Survey for 1976-77. It is contained in American Indians and Alaska Natives in Postsecondary Education by D. Michael Pavel et al in the first issue of the National Center for Education Statistics' Education Statistics Quarterly available by calling the Education Publications Center at 1-877-433-7827.


EARNINGS INCREASE FOR ALL GROUPS BUT GAP PERSIST

The mean earnings of all African American, Hispanic, and white workers and the proportions with bachelor's and advanced degrees--the better paid workers-have increased considerably over the last twenty years. However, because majority men were so far ahead to begin with, the gaps between the earnings of minorities and equivalently-educated whites and between the earnings of women and equivalently-educated men persist and some are greater than twenty years ago. In addition, workers with less education have lost ground in comparison with workers with college degrees or postgraduate education.

The mean earnings of all workers aged 18 and older tripled between 1977 and 1997. Those of African Americans increased from $7,271 to $21,909. Hispanic earnings increased from $7,761 to $20,766 and white earnings, from $10,191 to $30,515. Non-high school graduates doubled their earnings, high school graduates with no postsecondary education earned about 2.5 times their 1977 wages, and workers with advanced degrees earned 3 to 3.5 times their 1977 wages in 1997, as shown in table 1.

Figure 1 compares the mean earnings of African American and Hispanic non-high school graduates, high school graduates with no postsecondary education, and college graduates with no postgraduate education, and the earnings of white non-high school graduates and college graduates, with those of white high school graduates between 1977 and 1997. One dollar of earnings of white high school graduates is represented by 100%.


Figure 1.- Percentage Comparisons of Mean Earnings of African Americans, Hispanics and Whites By Educational Attainment, 1977 to 1997

 

  

In 1977, equivalently-educated Hispanic workers earned 88 cents, and African American workers, 82 cents, for every dollar earned by white high school graduates. By 1997, these proportions were down to 83 cents and 80 cents. Hispanics who had not completed high school earned 71 cents in 1977 but only 64 cents in 1997. African Americans lost 3 cents (from 59 to 56 cents) but white non-high school graduates, who had earned 81 cents for every white high school graduate dollar in 1977 only earned 70 cents in 1997.

Earnings increasingly reward higher education. For every dollar earned by white high school graduates as shown in the figure, white college graduates earned $1.58 in 1977 and $1.75 in 1997; Hispanics, $1.37 and $1.42; and African Americans, $1.21 and $1.36. The increases for those with advanced degrees, not shown in the figure, were from $2.11 to $2.75 for whites, $1.82 to $2.48 for Hispanics, and $1.61 to $1.81 for blacks.

Women have been gaining ground but are still far from earning the amounts that equivalently-educated men earn. As shown in figure 2, in 1977, female high school graduates earned less than half of the mean earnings of male high school graduates and even women with advanced degrees earned only 90 cents for every dollar earned by male high school graduates with no college education. By 1997, female high school graduates still earned only 60 cents for every dollar earned by male high school graduates and women with bachelor's degrees had barely passed them with $1.06. Women with advanced degrees earned $1.51 for every dollar earned by male high school graduates with no college. In contrast, males with bachelor's degrees earned $1.77, up from $1.50, and those with advanced degrees earned $2.76, up from $1.88 in 1977.


Figure 2.- Percentage Comparison of Mean Earnings of Men and Woman By Educational Attainment, 1977 T0 1997.

 

The numbers of workers with bachelor's or advanced degrees have increased in all groups. However, the greatest increases have been made by Hispanics: 443% more had bachelor's degrees in 1997 than in 1977 and 270% more had advanced degrees. The increases for African American and white workers were 247% and 126% for those with bachelor's degrees and 105% and 48% for those with advanced degrees, respectively. These increases are shown in figure 3.

The educational attainment of female workers is rising faster than that of male workers. In 1997, 199% more women workers had bachelor's degrees in comparison with 105% more men than in 1977, and 114% more women had advanced degrees compared with 34% more men, as shown in figure 4.


Table 1.- Mean Earnings of Workers, 18 And Older, By educational Attainment, Racial/Ethnic, And Gender : 1977 And 1997

 

Group and gender
Total
Non HSG
HSG
With bachelor's
With adv. degree
1977
Total
$9,887
$7,066
$9,013
$14,207
$19,077
African American
7,271
5,406
7,553
11,088
14,749
Hispanic*
7,761
6,547
8,079
12,572
16,660
White
10,191
7,415
9,173
14,462
19,337
Men
12,888
8,939
12,092
18,187
22,786
African American
8,710
6,648
9,332
12,978
16,385
Hispanic*
9,655
8,192
10,386
15,189
19,025
White
13,329
9,366
12,377
18,521
23,093
Women
5,804
4,032
5,624
7,923
10,848
African American
5,704
3,793
5,837
9,604
12,896
Hispanic*
4,964
3,707
5,466
9,082
10,569
White
5,808
4,097
5,604
7,750
10,655
1997
Total
29,514
16,124
22,895
40,478
63,229
African American
21,909
13,185
18,980
32,062
42,791
Hispanic*
20,766
25,069
19,558
33,465
58,571
White
30,515
16,596
23,618
41,439
65,058
Men
36,556
19,575
28,307
50,056
78,032
African American
25,080
15,423
22,440
35,792
49,940
Hispanic*
23,520
17,447
22,253
37,963
68,097
White
37,933
20,071
29,298
51,678
80,322
Women
25,528
10,725
16,906
30,119
42,744
African American
19,161
10,607
15,789
29,091
38,392
Hispanic*
16,781
10,503
15,747
29,173
43,051
White
21,779
10,700
17,166
30,041
43,236
*Hispanics may be of any race

 


Figure 3.- Increases In The Numbers of African American, Hispanic, And White Workers With University Degrees, 1977-97

The gains in educational attainment are reflected in the decreasing proportions of workers in all groups who have not completed high school or ended education with high school and the increasing proportions with college degrees compared with those in 1977, as shown in table 2 on page 4. In 1977, nearly half of Hispanic workers were not high school graduates and another 31% had completed high school but had no postsecondary education. By 1997, these proportions had fallen to 38% and 29% while 11% of Hispanics, compared with 7% in 1977, had bachelor's degrees or higher. Among African Americans, the proportion who failed to complete high school dropped from 39% to 15%, while the proportion of those with high school diplomas rose slightly. The proportion of those with bachelor's degrees more than doubled and that of blacks with advanced degrees also rose. Among whites only half as many had failed to complete high school in 1997 as in 1977. The proportion of white high school graduates with no college education also fell as more white workers acquired bachelor's and higher degrees.


Table 2.- Numbers Of Workers 18 and Older And Percentage Distribution, By Educational Attainment, Racial/Ethnic Group, And Gender : 1977 And 1997(Numbers in 1,000s)

 

Group and gender
Number
Non HSG
HSG
Some college/ AA degr
With bach.
With advanced degree
1977
Total
103,119
24.1
40.4
18.3
10.0
7.1
Afri. American
10,014
39.4
36.0
15.8
5.3
3.5
Hispanic*
4,752
48.5
30.7
13.8
4.4
2.5
White
91,254
22.5
41.1
18.6
10.4
7.3
Men
59,441
25.9
36.8
18.3
10.7
8.5
Afri. American
5,222
42.7
33.9
15.3
4.5
3.6
Hispanic*
2,833
51.5
27.4
13.8
4.2
3.0
White
53,174
24.3
37.2
18.5
11.2
8.8
Women
43,678
21.7
45.4
18.4
9.2
5.1
Afri. American
4,794
35.8
38.3
16.2
6.2
3.5
Hispanic*
1,919
44.1
35.7
13.8
4.7
1.7
White
38,080
19.9
46.6
18.7
9.4
5.3
1997
Total
140,367
12.1
32.8
29.1
17.8
8.3
Afri. American
15,873
15.4
37.6
30.9
11.6
4.6
Hispanic*
13,972
37.5
29.2
22.0
8.2
3.1
White
117,985
11.7
32.6
29.0
18.2
8.5
Men
74,596
13.9
32.4
27.3
17.4
9.0
Afri. American
7,370
17.7
38.8
28.6
11.1
3.8
Hispanic*
8,261
41.7
28.9
19.3
6.7
3.3
White
63,738
13.6
32.0
27.3
17.8
9.2
Women
65,771
10.1
33.2
31.1
18.3
7.3
Afri. American
8,503
13.3
36.5
32.9
12.1
5.3
Hispanic*
5,711
31.4
29.6
25.9
10.2
2.9
White
54,247
9.4
33.2
31.1
18.8
7.6
Note: Percentages may not add to 100.0 because of rounding. * Hispanics may be of any race.

 


Figure 4.-Increase In The Numbers Of Men And Women men Workers With University Degrees, 1977-97

This information is from the March 1998 current population survey of the Bureau of the Census. It was reported in Educa- tional Attainment in the United States, March 1998 (Update), (PPL-99), available for $30 from the Education and Social Stratification Branch, U.S. Bureau of the Census, (301) 457-2464. High school graduation rates from this source were reported in NUMBERS AND NEEDS, vol. 9, no. 1, January 1999.


PUBLIC SCHOOL LEP ENROLLMENTS GREW BY EIGHT PERCENT BETWEEN
1995 AND 1996 ACCORDING TO STATES

Forty-seven states and the District of Columbia have reported to the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs of the U.S. Department of Education that they enrolled 3.3 million limited-English-proficient (LEP) students in public schools in 1996-97. This was about 8% over the number they reported in the 1995-96 school year.

Forty-five states and the District reported that 2.8 million LEP students in public schools were in special programs, including Bilingual Education, Title I basic, and other federally-funded programs and state and local programs.

The percentages of LEP students identified among public school students ranged from 0.3% of those in Mississippi to nearly 28% of those in Alaska. A quarter of public school students in California and nearly a quarter in New Mexico were limited in English in 1996-97. More than 10% were LEP in Texas, Florida, and Arizona.

States reporting the largest numbers are California with 1,381,393, Texas with 513,634, Florida with 288,603, New York with 220,840, and Illinois with 118,246 in the 1996- 97 school year. Approximately 84% of LEP students in California, 95% of those in Texas, 55% of those in Florida, 85% of those in New York, and 100% of those in Illinois were enrolled in special programs.

While total enrollments in public schools in the reporting states fell by 2% between 1995-96 and 1996-97, the numbers of limited-English-proficient students who were identified by the states increased from 3,103,314 to 3,341,545.

Twenty-four states reported on LEP students in non-public schools: there were 40,682 in 1995-96 and 37,316 in 1996-97. About 35% of the 1996-97 students were in special programs.

To identify language minority students as shown in the table, 45 states and the District of Columbia employ home language surveys and 37 states and the District use parent information.

Twenty-one of the reporting states and the District indicate that they use the mother tongue as a criterion. For seven of the states-Alabama, Alaska, Florida, Kansas, Nevada, New Hampshire, and New Jersey-this is the only criterion of non-English language background.

Three states, Illinois, Michigan, and New Mexico, reported that they use the home language as the only criterion for the determination of language background and one state, Wisconsin, whether the student speaks the non-English language. Other states use several criteria, including the language environment and five include whether the student is foreign born.

Nineteen states and the District rate English reading and writing ability and 18 of them also rate oral English to determine whether language minority students are limited in English proficiency. Nine states use tests of math achievement and two of them also use tests of English language arts achievement. Altogether, 44 states and the District use language proficiency tests and 35 states and the District use achievement tests as a part of the identification process.

Not shown in the table because they did not provide information about the criteria used to identify LEP students are 16 other states all but one of which reported that they conduct home language surveys and all but two, that they assess the English proficiency of the language minority students.

In lieu of criteria, Arkansas and Maine reported that they use the Bilingual Educa- tion Act definition and Montana reported using the definition for the Office of Civil Rights Lau compliance. Texas, which reported using a language arts test as a criterion, and Oklahoma, which provided no other information about its criteria, stated that they used other definitions.

Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia do not participate in the federally-funded state grant program administered by OBEMLA for which this survey is a requirement.


Table.- Criteria To Identify Limited-English-Proficient Students, By Catagory And State: 1996-97

 

State Language background English difficulty Academic achievement
Alabama
1
7,8
-
Alaska
1
-
10
Arizona
1,2,3
-
-
California
-
7,8
-
Connecticut
1,2,3,4
-
-
Delaware
1,4,6
7,8
-
District of Columbia
1,2,3,4,6
7,8
-
Florida
1
-
-
Georgia
1,2,3
7,8
-
Hawaii
1,2,3
-
10
Illinois
2
7,8
10
Indiana
-
7,8
10
Iowa
1,2,3,4,5
7,8
10
Kansas
1
7,8
9,10
Louisiana
1,2,3
7,8
10
Maryland
-
-
11
Massachusetts
1,2,3,5
-
-
Michigan
2
7,8
-
Minnesota
1,2,3
7,8
9,10
Mississippi
1,2,3,4,5,6
-
-
Nevada
1
7,8
-
New Hampshire
1
7,8
-
New Jersy
1
8
10
New York
3,5,6
7,8
-
North Carolina
-
-
11
Ohio
1,2,3,4,5,6
-
-
Oregon
1,2,3
-
-
South Carolina
1,2,3,4
7,8
-
Texas
-
-
9
Vermont
1,2,3,4
8
-
Wisconsin
3
7,8
-

Criteria to determine language background: 1, non-English mother tounge; 2, mom-English home language; 3, non-English speaker; 4, non-Englih environment; 5, foriegn born; 6, other; criteria to measure English proficiency; 7, difficulty in oral English; 8, difficulty in reading and/or writing English; criteria to measure academic achievement: 9, achievement on English language arts test; 10, math achievement; 11, grades in core subjects.

 

The summary report of the results of the 1996-97 Survey of the States' Limited English Proficiency Students and Available Educational Programs and Services may be obtained from the National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 2011 Eye Street, N.W., Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20006, telephone: (202) 467-0867; FAX: (202) 467-4283/(800) 531-9347.


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